Part 1 – Introducing the Problem

The Underappreciated Role of On-Chain Governance in Driving True Decentralization in DeFi Projects

Part 1 – Introducing the Problem: Governance Theater in DeFi Protocols

In the race to decentralize finance, many protocols have obsessed over composability, tokenomics, and yield mechanics—while relegating governance design to an afterthought. As a result, decentralized finance is plagued by what can only be described as “governance theater”: token-based voting systems that mimic decentralization while central power still resides in the hands of dev multisigs, VC-dominated DAOs, or opaque foundations. This pseudo-decentralization isn’t just a philosophical issue—it introduces major attack surfaces, stagnates protocol evolution, and erodes user sovereignty.

At the root, on-chain governance mechanisms remain an underexplored layer of the decentralization stack. Most protocols treat governance as a UX layer (votes, forums, dashboards), not as a protocol-layer primitive that requires real cryptoeconomic alignment. This divergence became especially apparent as protocols like Compound and Uniswap—often cited as “decentralized”—continued to use admin keys or relied on coordinated veto powers long after decentralization was claimed.

Historically, pioneering projects such as early-day MakerDAO tried to systematize governance by encoding monetary decisions (like interest rates and collateral types) into smart contracts with tokenholder-driven voting. Yet even Maker’s process often fell short due to low voter turnout and an overreliance on expert delegates, raising the question: is governance actually decentralized if >90% of voting power is locked in the hands of a few whales?

More experimental approaches, particularly evident in projects like Kusama—which was designed as a chaotic but resilient governance testbed—have attempted to structurally rewire decision-making by enforcing short governance cycles, rotating councils, and bake-in de-risked experimentation. These models show promise, but they remain niche and poorly understood by mainstream DeFi developers, who continue to fork governance code from legacy models without questioning their suitability.

What remains vastly unexplored is how governance mechanisms can be reimagined as cryptoeconomic systems, not just user input tools. How can protocols implement governance that doesn’t just mimic decentralization—but enforces it adversarially and transparently at a protocol level? Without answering this, DeFi risks consolidating into a series of branded centralized services with superficial token wrappers.

Until governance architecture is treated with the same seriousness as liquidity mining or bridging mechanisms, DeFi will fail to fulfill its decentralization mandate. And as capital, regulation, and user trust converge in the coming chapters of crypto's evolution, governance may prove to be the unintended Achilles’ heel.

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Part 2 – Exploring Potential Solutions

Emerging Technologies Addressing Failures in On-Chain DeFi Governance

A common critique of on-chain governance is its vulnerability to plutocracy and apathy-fueled stagnation. Several experimental governance frameworks and cryptographic mechanisms aim to counteract these systemic issues. Each introduces trade-offs worth dissecting.

1. Quadratic Voting: Marginal Voice Scaling

Quadratic voting (QV) attempts to mitigate whale dominance by scaling voting power by the square root of held tokens. This means influencing multiple proposals incurs exponentially higher costs, discouraging vote monopolization.

Strengths: - Dampens governance capture by large token holders. - Encourages diverse proposal engagement.

Weaknesses: - Still requires Sybil-resistance—token fragmentation across wallets can undermine the intent. - Cost-sensitive protocols may see low participation if gas or coordination friction exists.

QV has been partially implemented in experiments like Gitcoin Grants, though not yet widely adopted across DeFi. Integrating effective Sybil resistance—possibly through decentralized identity primitives—remains a bottleneck.

2. Conviction Voting: Temporal Commitment

Conviction voting enables continuous, non-binary governance where voting weight accrues over time the longer tokens remain committed. It favors signal accumulation over time, rewarding consistent support rather than sudden majority swings.

Strengths: - Incentivizes long-term alignment and reduces flash governance manipulation. - Reduces pressure to vote instantly, lowering barriers for passive stakeholders.

Weaknesses: - Sluggish to react to urgent threats (e.g., exploits or parameter detuning). - Complexity adds friction for ecosystem newcomers.

Projects like Gnosis and Aragon’s DAO frameworks have toyed with this mechanism, but widespread traction has yet to materialize.

3. Permissionless Delegation Markets

Governance delegation is often opaque. Making delegation liquid—via tokenized voting rights or reputation-based voting pools—can redirect power toward capable stewards.

Strengths: - Boosts engagement by separating governance from capital. - Allows optional specialization for protocol participants.

Weaknesses: - Opens room for cartel formation. - Hard to encode accountability in fungible representative models.

“Kusama Governance: The Future of Decentralized Decision-Making” provides a compelling angle to this discussion by showcasing Kusama’s innovative delegation architecture, albeit under frequent criticism for complexity and fragmentation of stakeholder voices.

4. Zero-Knowledge Voting (ZKV)

ZK-based voting allows for private vote casting without sacrificing transparency. This can eliminate social pressure patterns such as “vote signaling” for clout.

Strengths: - Enables censorship-resistant and truly anonymous governance. - Can prevent off-chain coercion.

Weaknesses: - Computationally intensive and often impractical for gas-restricted chains. - Limited usability tools for DAO members.

Protocols exploring this path will need to balance UX with gas economics—especially in multi-chain environments.

These mechanisms paint a path beyond status quo token voting. Part 3 will examine how select DeFi protocols integrate—or cautiously avoid—these models in live ecosystems.

Part 3 – Real-World Implementations

Real-World Implementations of On-Chain Governance in DeFi: Lessons from the Front Lines

Several DeFi protocols have moved beyond theoretical discussions of on-chain governance, instead opting for bold, often experimental, implementations. Their real-world outcomes reveal both the untapped potential and systemic limitations of decentralized civic architecture.

Alpha Finance Lab exemplifies a modular yet pragmatic approach. Through its Alpha Tokenomics structure and staking-based governance, Alpha holders can propose and vote on protocol upgrades. However, DAO participation has proven inconsistent. An unusually high quorum threshold has, on occasion, paralyzed progress—particularly during critical product pivots. The challenge isn’t technological—it’s behavioral. Even with a clear path to proposal via ALPHA Staking, advancing governance requires community incentive alignment that is still lacking.

In contrast, Kusama has implemented a highly active governance system underpinned by a “collective chaos” philosophy. Kusama’s use of referenda, council elections, and public proposals has enabled fast-paced innovation. However, this agility has come at a cost: decision fatigue and governance fatigue. The frequency of governance events and the technical complexity of proposals have unintentionally disenfranchised many non-technical stakeholders. This high cognitive barrier produces a de facto centralization in voter influence, where a subset of power users dominate outcomes.

SushiSwap’s model represents yet another layer of complexity. Initially praised for its community-first governance ethos, the SushiSwap DAO later faced accusations of governance capture. While the SUSHI token provided voting rights, large holders began to accumulate disproportionate power, echoing plutocratic dynamics reminiscent of traditional systems. Technical upgrades like Snapshot voting and the implementation of SushiGuard aimed to prevent malicious governance attacks, but these Band-Aid solutions sidestepped the deeper issue: token-weighted voting inherently struggles with Sybil resistance and equitable representation.

BitTorrent Chain is also worth watching. The BitTorrent Chain governance model attempts to balance liquidity-driven voting with validator consensus. Yet it has faced significant fragmentation among voting pools, complicating referendum outcomes. Inter-chain coordination lags behind intent, making true cross-chain governance a persistent challenge.

Even where code-based enforcement works as intended, building incentive-compatible governance rarely escapes the human element. Many DAOs still grapple with minimal turnout and incentive misalignment. Tokenomics alone can’t fix coordination failure. As projects seek more resilient models, these failures offer valuable lessons, not just in infrastructure but in community design.

As adoption continues and these systems iterate, the next section will explore the long-term implications of on-chain governance models—both as infrastructure and ideology—and assess whether they can genuinely fulfill DeFi’s decentralization mandate.

Part 4 – Future Evolution & Long-Term Implications

Future-Proofing On-Chain Governance: Evolutionary Trajectories and Tech Synergies

The trajectory of on-chain governance is being redefined not just by tooling improvements but by architecture-level shifts. While most governance designs today are still constrained by rigid proposal formats and linear voting mechanisms, next-gen implementations are experimenting with adaptive governance systems—models that can evolve their rulesets based on dynamic conditions like voter activity, participation rates, or liquidity states. Governance engines that leverage DAO-specific machine learning algorithms could recalibrate governance weightings in real time, optimizing for community representativeness while preserving transaction finality.

Scalability continues to be a friction point. Layer-1 networks already face operational stress when governance proposals spike (e.g., during contentious forks). As throughput constraints collide with governance mechanics, Layer-2 integration becomes critical. Optimistic and ZK-rollups are now being explored not just as transaction offload channels, but as modular governance layers. Projects experimenting with stackable governance where Layer-2 councils vote on micro-decisions, which then roll-up into macro-L1 resolutions, are showing early promise in increasing both scalability and granularity.

Interoperability remains a long-standing hurdle. Protocols like Cosmos and Polkadot have initiated cross-consensus messaging frameworks, but governance interoperability—governance that spans chains—is still largely theoretical. Imagine proposals passed on one DAO being programmable triggers on another via cross-chain governance bridges. While the metadata standards and execution validation layers for this aren’t production-ready, workarounds leveraging oracles and relay chains are currently being prototyped. These innovations are critical for positioning tech stacks like that of Kusama: The Wild Testbed for Blockchain Innovation as not just experimenting zones but as federated governable ecosystems.

Another notable evolution is governance composability. Protocols are beginning to treat governance systems as programmable APIs. This unlocks scenarios where dApps can fork not just a protocol’s code but also embed its governance model as native logic. This portability amplifies modular deployments but also invites governance attacks if embedded systems are not context-aware.

Despite these technical leaps, wide-scale adoption faces critical barriers: voter fatigue, Sybil resistance, and the risk of plutocratic short-circuiting. Liquid democracy mechanics and identity-anchored voting are iterative attempts to solve these, but introduce centralization tradeoffs.

As these governance architectures intersect with emergent domains such as decentralized identity, prediction markets, or "governance NFTs", the strategic alignment between protocol autonomy and user empowerment becomes both more complex and more critical—setting the foundation for a deep dive into decision rights, voting dynamics, and control vectors within decentralized ecosystems. Interested traders exploring governance-rich ecosystems can start staking and participating using this referral link.

Part 5 – Governance & Decentralization Challenges

Governance & Decentralization Challenges: When Democracy Becomes a Double-Edged Sword

Decentralized governance is often idealized as the cornerstone of permissionless finance. But as DeFi matures, the tension between decentralization and practical control becomes impossible to ignore. One of the most pressing challenges in on-chain governance is the emergence of plutocratic rule—where token distribution, not community will, determines outcomes.

Token-based voting systems, commonly implemented via DAOs, inherently favor large holders. This opens the door for "whale governance" where high-net-worth entities or early insiders can effectively control protocol changes. The promise of decentralization erodes when the same handful of wallets routinely swing key proposals. In some cases, governance becomes less about communal coordination and more akin to corporate boardroom decision-making, locked behind pseudonymous addresses.

The problems extend beyond simple power imbalance. On-chain governance remains susceptible to attacks like vote-buying and flash-loan manipulations. For protocols with large treasuries or critical functionalities hinging on governance timers, short-term takeover attempts—even unsuccessful ones—can still result in market instability, loss of user trust, or expensive safeguards (like freezing contracts or imposing emergency vetoes).

Centralized teams often step in to avert such scenarios, but this presents its own trade-offs. Many DeFi “DAOs” rely on multisig wallets controlled by founders or foundations. This is particularly apparent in projects that showcase governance theater while shielding key changes behind opaque admin controls. In moments of crisis—protocol exploits, token crashes—the community frequently turns to centralized figures for direction, underlining the fragility of current governance models.

The alternative—truly decentralized, fork-resilient systems—are difficult to execute without sacrificing speed or user experience. Governance systems like those in Kusama attempt to integrate referenda, council members, and rolling elections, but not without critiques about complexity and effectiveness.

Regulatory dynamics also further complicate the picture. A well-meaning DAO could face pressure to comply with state power, turning governance into a tool for regulatory capture. Token-holding institutions might surface as governance validators, representing compliance interests more than individual user intent.

These limitations expose the underbelly of today’s DeFi governance, where decentralization is advertised but seldom fully realized. Without redesigned mechanisms to prevent concentration of power and mitigate attack vectors, the space risks replicating traditional finance—but with fewer safeguards.

In Part 6, we’ll unpack the engineering and scalability trade-offs that arise when attempting to deploy these governance models at scale, including how design decisions at the smart contract layer can either reinforce or undermine decentralization.

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Part 6 – Scalability & Engineering Trade-Offs

Engineering Decentralization at Scale: The Trade-Offs Between Speed, Security, and Sovereignty

Scaling on-chain governance mechanisms isn't just a question of TPS or validator throughput—it's a foundational design challenge that touches protocol architecture, consensus design, and cryptoeconomic incentives. At its core lies the tri-lemma: decentralization, scalability, and security. Projects rarely optimize all three.

For example, platforms using Nakamoto-style proof-of-work (PoW) consensus—like early Bitcoin forks—offer robust decentralization and security guarantees, but are inherently sluggish and ill-suited to complex governance operations such as frequent voting or parameter adjustments. On the other end, high-throughput blockchains employing delegated proof-of-stake (DPoS) or proof-of-authority (PoA) favor speed and scalability, yet centralize decision-making among a smaller validator set, creating a governance bottleneck that undermines participatory decentralization.

Implementing true on-chain governance adds additional load: smart contract execution for proposals, real-time vote weighting, and cross-contract calls all compete for blockspace. Platforms like Ethereum struggle with composability under congestion, leading to gas spikes that suppress voter turnout and skew governance toward whales. Protocols seeking performance—such as Sui and Solana—use parallelized execution (via Move or Sealevel), but this imposes its own costs in tooling complexity and developer fragmentation. The balance: governance needs predictable finality, but high-speed networks may sacrifice auditability or decentralization guarantees.

Consider Kusama, a network designed to experiment with rapid governance iterations. While it operates with high throughput and advanced on-chain tooling, its architecture necessitates continual community vigilance and a steep learning curve for secure participation. For more context on this experimental model, refer to https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/a-deepdive-into-kusama.

Engineering trade-offs also extend to off-chain components. Networks integrating oracles or optimistic rollups inherently introduce latency and external trust assumptions. While these tools extend scaling limits, they fragment the governance surface and complicate proposal execution logic. For projects considering DAOs with jurisdictional influence, cross-chain bridges and message passing systems increase system complexity, especially when attack vectors span multiple chains.

There are also economic implications. High-throughput doesn’t equal high inclusion if vote gas costs deter smaller holders from participating. Designing governance systems that subsidize participation—either by layering L2 voting tokens or via staking yield splits—are being explored, but scalability trade-offs must be analyzed in concert with governance layer incentives. Platforms offering streamlined onboarding, like Binance, may help small stakeholders participate more seamlessly in these evolving ecosystems: https://accounts.binance.com/register?ref=35142532

In navigating these constraints, the next installment will dissect how regulatory frameworks clash with decentralized governance assumptions and what latent risks emerge as governments begin delineating responsibility in on-chain decision-making.

Part 7 – Regulatory & Compliance Risks

Regulatory and Compliance Risks in On-Chain Governance Systems

The regulatory frameworks surrounding on-chain governance within DeFi projects remain murky, inconsistent, and heavily fragmented across jurisdictions. This legal ambiguity poses a significant systemic risk for the adoption and scalability of decentralized finance technologies. One of the most problematic aspects is the fluid definition of what constitutes a “governance token.” In one jurisdiction, it may be deemed a utility token; in another, a security. This discrepancy leaves DAO participants and developers exposed to retroactive enforcement.

Particularly in the United States, the lack of a cohesive approach towards DAO liability classification has created tension in DeFi ecosystems. Core contributors, often pseudonymous, may still be legally liable under traditional corporate governance standards—even if they're passively participating via a decentralized framework. As a result, developers building on-chain governance mechanisms must navigate a legal paradox: create systems that are decentralized enough to be organizationally distinct, yet structured enough to comply with possible KYC/AML demands.

European and Asian jurisdictions have taken diverging stances. While the EU's MiCA regulation leans toward more comprehensive licensing, its institutional underpinnings are largely incompatible with anonymous governance processes. On the other hand, some Asian regulators are taking a “sandbox-first” approach, allowing DAOs and DeFi protocols to experiment more freely—but only under close observation. These experimental models can often be influenced by regulatory overreach, leading to pseudo-decentralized architectures that are effectively centralized under legal pressure. This friction introduces substantial coordination issues, especially when protocol participation spans multiple countries.

Further complicating matters, historical enforcement actions serve as precedents that incentivize risk-averse behavior. DAO participants recall high-profile actions like those against early ICO projects or decentralized platforms whose “governance entities” were deemed de facto issuing bodies. While on-chain governance aims to shift decision-making from developers to token holders, the mere existence of upgrade keys or centrally distributed governance tokens may still attract regulatory scrutiny.

Interventionist policy models could even compel DeFi protocols to implement whitelisted governance participation or zero-knowledge-based compliance proofs—ironically centralizing a system originally designed to resist such frameworks.

These risks are especially prominent in experimental protocols like those developed on Kusama. Projects that test bleeding-edge governance mechanics, as highlighted in https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/kusama-vs-competitors-the-blockchain-showdown, are often the first to trigger regulatory reactions due to their visibility and innovation speed.

In Part 8, the focus will shift to the macro-level economic and financial consequences that arise once on-chain governance reaches a critical mass in mainstream DeFi markets.

Part 8 – Economic & Financial Implications

On-Chain Governance in DeFi: Economic Disruption, Value Creation, and Risk Realignment

As on-chain governance structures mature, their impact on the economic mechanics of decentralized finance is no longer hypothetical—it’s structural. At the core, these systems rewire how capital flows, how power is distributed, and how risk is priced.

For institutional capital allocators, on-chain governance opens both opportunities and complications. On one hand, governance tokens offer new vehicles for yield farming, protocol staking, and meta-governance plays. Institutional DAO participation grants early access to fee share models, protocol treasuries, and first-mover alpha. However, fully transparent voting and immutable code execution clash with many TradFi compliance frameworks, making some institutions selective or outright hesitant.

Developers in well-governed DeFi ecosystems may enjoy stronger community alignment, especially when quadratic voting or reputation-weighted stakes nudge outcomes toward builders rather than whales. But the same economic alignment can invert productivity incentives, as token incentives may reward political gameplay over technical innovation. Protocol engineers working under DAO-run compensation structures often face volatile reward schemes, dependency on token buybacks, or sudden community-led wage revisions.

For traders and yield aggregators, governance proposals create a new layer of event risk. A parameter tweak—such as collateral ratio changes or liquidity mining halts—can swing protocol fundamentals overnight. Flash governance attacks, where voting thresholds are met within minutes due to unchecked delegation, have led to exploitative votes that drain treasuries or manipulate emissions schedules. The economic implications are not abstract; they result in slippage, arbitrage windows, or even full-scale de-pegs in algorithmic stablecoins.

On-chain governance also incentivizes speculative governance arbitrage. Protocols with mispriced governance tokens—either through undervalued control rights or unguarded treasury access—attract activist whales who can sway votes for self-enrichment. This asymmetric power makes carefully designed models like those used by https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/navigating-governance-in-alpha-finance-lab increasingly relevant, especially as DAOs reckon with voter apathy and centralization risks.

The financialization of governance further leads to an emergent market for meta-governance—projects holding tokens in other DAOs to influence their direction. While this cross-DAO entanglement breeds innovation, it also creates systemic fragility. A cascade failure, triggered by an oracle attack on one protocol, can affect voting outcomes across multiple DAOs due to inter-linked collateral and delegation structures.

Economically, on-chain governance doesn’t just reconfigure internal protocol efficiency—it creates latent systemic risk vectors. Rug pulls and DAO takeovers aren’t merely technical exploits; they’re often outcomes of economic misalignment masked as decentralized empowerment.

In the broader lens, the underlying question becomes less about functionality and more about purpose—a shift that moves us into the social and philosophical frontier of decentralization.

Part 9 – Social & Philosophical Implications

How On-Chain Governance Shapes Economic Landscapes in DeFi: Opportunity, Disruption, and Risk

On-chain governance introduces fundamental economic shifts across decentralized finance by upending traditional capital allocation structures and introducing fluid, community-driven decision-making. These shifts present a nuanced economic impact, particularly for institutional investors, developers, and high-frequency traders.

One of the most pronounced transformations comes through capital efficiency mechanisms. Protocols governed on-chain can swiftly re-allocate treasury funds to incentivize liquidity, redistribute staking rewards, or even enact buybacks—all based on community vote. This opens speculative yield farming strategies that hinge not just on protocol performance, but on governance outcomes themselves. Traders leveraging governance proposals for alpha now analyze not only code or price action—but active governance forums, vote thresholds, and whale wallet activities.

For institutional players, the implications are twofold. On one hand, tokenized governance rights offer a new asset class—governance tokens—as exposure vehicles to protocol influence. But governance attacks and voter apathy diminish those assets' durability. An undercollateralized DAO treasury managed by an inactive community presents clear fiduciary hazards. Institutions may hesitate to commit capital to DAOs without formal guarantees, third-party audits, or mitigation mechanisms like veto councils or multisigs. The lack of legal clarity around DAO resolution, especially in systemic failures, represents substantial legal and operational risk.

Developers embedded in governance ecosystems encounter a mixed bag. Theoretically, on-chain systems democratize roadmap decisions, creating an open pipeline between user's feature requests and engineering resources. In practice, however, this often leads to unsustainable velocity pressures. Community governance rarely aligns developer incentives with long-term protocol stability. Builder burnout, coupled with token inflation used to "incentivize" proposals, risks converting protocol development into a popularity contest, not a sustainability path.

Traders benefit most in open, responsive governance environments—where governance-induced forks, fee reconfigurations, or tokenomics upgrades allow smart participants to arbitrage information asymmetry. Case in point: when SushiSwap's governance enabled a proposal to redirect liquidity rewards, it catalyzed a sharp relocation of TVL, as traders preempted the governance outcome.

But the flip side also looms—economic fragility. Market manipulation via 'governance bombing'—purchasing large quantities of tokens to push self-serving proposals—remains an unresolved threat. Flash loan-powered governance attacks, though rare, remain economically ruinous when successful.

On-chain governance doesn't just decentralize power—it rewrites the structure of incentives. As all parties recalibrate risk models and participation strategies, it becomes clear that governance design is not merely political—it’s financial engineering at the protocol level.

This economic dimension inevitably bleeds into deeper, less quantifiable territory—values, identity, and collective agency. We'll untangle those threads in Part 9, where we explore the social and philosophical undercurrents shaping governance innovation in DeFi.

Part 10 – Final Conclusions & Future Outlook

The Future of On-Chain Governance in DeFi: Inevitable Evolution or Systemic Collapse?

After examining a wide spectrum of governance frameworks, systemic vulnerabilities, and mechanisms affecting user agency, it's clear that on-chain governance is both a catalyst and a bottleneck for achieving meaningful decentralization in DeFi. It offers a powerful toolset to detach protocol control from centralized entities, but its effectiveness hinges on infrastructure maturity, aligned incentives, and drastically improved voter participation.

The best-case scenario sees on-chain governance evolve into a robust, self-sustaining coordination layer. Token-based decision-making mechanisms become more representative as quadratic voting, identity staking, and delegation frameworks mature. Governance attacks become harder as economic incentives shift toward longer-term protocol health. Projects like Kusama, with experimental flexibility and community-facing tooling, could lead this evolution if replicated across broader ecosystems. Decentralized treasuries and modular upgrade paths could democratize innovation pipeline decisions at a previously unthinkable scale.

But the worst-case outcomes loom large. Entrenched whales could calcify pseudo-democracies where governance only safeguards incumbent interests. Voter apathy and fragmentation could turn this radical feature into mere operational theater—hollow proposals, cartel-backed voting blocs, and governance tokens acting as thinly-veiled power consolidations. DeFi then stagnates, locked in governance theater, while centralized alternatives refine user experience and regulatory compliance.

There are still fundamentally unresolved questions: How can meaningful participation scale with protocol complexity? What governance guardrails can balance security with progress in hostile ecosystems? Can protocol forks realistically act as a fail-safe for poor governance, or are they merely pressure-release events with high coordination costs?

For mainstream adoption, UX barriers must be obliterated. Proposals should be understandable without requiring deep protocol immersion. Voting interfaces must evolve beyond Etherscan-linked wallet popups. Additionally, coordination among stakeholders must extend beyond token holders—validators, DAO developers, and users all need voice mechanisms beyond token ownership.

Most importantly, governance needs to be seen not just as a checkbox feature, but a core layer of protocol architecture. Without legitimacy and visibility, even well-designed models decay from lack of user trust.

The question thus crystallizes: will on-chain governance become the constitutional backbone of decentralized finance—a system that empowers users across ecosystems—or merely a fragile facade remembered as an early underdeveloped experiment in autonomy?

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