Part 1 – Introducing the Problem

Revolutionizing Intellectual Property: How Blockchain is Disrupting Copyright Management and Ownership

Intellectual Property Meets the Immutable Ledger: A Collision Course

In the arcane world of copyright management, where legal ambiguity, opaque licensing structures, and centralized intermediaries quietly dictate creative control, blockchain’s core promise—trustless, transparent ownership—is still largely theoretical. Despite a proliferation of crypto-native content platforms and NFTs claiming “ownership,” the fundamental mechanics of copyright—registration, attribution, licensing rights, and enforcement—remain non-programmable. The smart contract revolution has inadvertently sidestepped the most foundational layer of intellectual property: authorship.

Historically, the copyright system evolved alongside industrial-scale publishing in the 18th century. Designed for paper-based bureaucracies and slow-moving courts, it is a system ill-fit for the web, let alone decentralized digital economies. The Berne Convention, while standardizing IP protection globally, left enforcement siloed in national contexts. Copyright registries—where they exist—operate under jurisdiction-specific legal protocols, incompatible with blockchain’s borderless architecture.

The crypto ecosystem has largely ignored this mismatch. Copyright remains pegged to traditional legal frameworks, leaving creators in Web3 to rely on the very institutions blockchain aims to obsolete. NFT ownership, for example, confers no legal copyright—it merely signals possession of a pointer to metadata, not authorship under law. This disconnect fosters an illusion of creative sovereignty and opens an attack surface for exploitative licensing, fraudulent claims, and malicious airdrops under the guise of legitimacy.

Attempts to solve this via “on-chain IP” are hindered by fragmented standards, non-interoperable metadata schemas, and off-chain dependencies that reintroduce trust into trustless systems. DNS and ENS collisions, deterministically signed contracts, and creative commons adaptations have emerged, yet lack regulatory anchoring or judicial recognition. Copyright DAOs exist, but raise unresolved governance questions—particularly where conflicting claims or derivative rights are involved. The problem is not merely technical—it’s infrastructural and conceptual.

Moreover, the absence of a unifying protocol for on-chain rights attribution mirrors unresolved challenges in decentralized governance more broadly. Initiatives like ApeCoin DAO are reshaping decision-making, yet their frameworks illustrate how governance without enforceable IP mechanisms can lead to entrenched ambiguity. The governance mechanisms discussed in https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/decentralized-governance-the-power-of-apecoin-dao parallel many of the unresolved dilemmas in copyright-centric DAOs.

What emerges is a blind spot with systemic implications. As more intellectual assets are tokenized, the crypto ecosystem risks mirror-replicating the very asymmetries it seeks to dissolve. Ownership without statutory recognition and licensing without legal architecture creates a feudal model disguised as decentralized innovation. In the absence of a globally recognized, programmable IP layer, creative sovereignty remains mostly ceremonial.

Part 2 – Exploring Potential Solutions

Blockchain-Based Copyright Solutions: Smart Contracts, NFTs, and Beyond

Current intellectual property infrastructure struggles with attribution, licensing transparency, and royalty distribution. Several blockchain-native approaches attempt to tackle these inefficiencies, but each comes with trade-offs that need to be deeply examined.

Smart Contracts for Dynamic Licensing

One theoretical solution gaining traction is automated licensing via smart contracts. These contracts enable rights holders to set predefined conditions for usage—price, term, and scope—executed permissionlessly on-chain. Platforms like MediaChain attempted to implement this years ago before being acquired. More recently, projects have been exploring dynamically priced licensing that accounts for usage metrics and context.

The upside is granularity and efficiency. The downside is legal ambiguity in multiple jurisdictions: smart contracts don't inherently possess legal enforceability outside the chain. Even with zero-knowledge attestations verifying copyright ownership, enforcement still hinges on off-chain adjudication.

NFTs as Proof of Ownership

NFTs are often touted as a way to create immutable, timestamped ownership receipts for content. In theory, minting an NFT at the point of content creation provides an unalterable record of intellectual property origination.

However, NFT metadata is rarely stored entirely on-chain, raising questions about permanence. Moreover, NFT-based rights are only as valid as their legal recognition. Even if a popular music track is tokenized and sold, there's no automatic crosswalk between the NFT and traditional copyright databases.

Some projects have explored linking NFT ownership to downstream revenue participation via royalties encoded within the token. But on-chain royalty enforcement breaks down across marketplaces that ignore these standards, especially if the ecosystem is fragmented. For a sobering analogy, consider cross-market interoperability challenges that plague governance products like those in https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/unlocking-filecoin-the-future-of-decentralized-storage.

Decentralized Identity + IP Rights

The intersection of decentralized identity (DID) and copyright is fertile ground. Tying works to a verifiable, self-sovereign identity allows attribution consistency even when content moves across platforms. Coupling DIDs with verifiable credentials about authorship could reduce impersonation and unlicensed derivatives.

Weaknesses lie in the fragility of adoption: until major platforms recognize and verify these DIDs within legal frameworks, their power remains theoretical. Standards like W3C’s DID spec are promising, but governance and implementation nuances remain unresolved.

As these approaches evolve, the gap remains wide between what cryptographic tools can technically enable and what can be enforced or adopted at scale. Part 3 will transition from theoretical models to the real-world experiments pushing these concepts into production.

Part 3 – Real-World Implementations

On-Chain Copyright Protection in Practice: Case Studies in Blockchain IP Management

Several blockchain ventures have emerged to operationalize decentralized IP protection, particularly in the realm of copyright registration, content monetization, and authorship verification. However, real-world implementation has revealed both technical promise and unresolved friction.

Ascribe, active in the early phase of blockchain IP experimentation, attempted to tokenize artwork metadata on Bitcoin via Colored Coins. While visionary, the project's dependence on Layer 1 Bitcoin for non-fungible data management proved a bottleneck, with transaction costs and limited smart contract functionality limiting scalability. The shutdown of Ascribe wasn’t due to lack of demand, but its architecture was ultimately outdated in a fast-moving protocol environment.

Later entrants like Po.et migrated these concepts to Ethereum, allowing timestamped metadata anchoring on-chain through smart contract-based publishing. Yet Po.et struggled with incentivizing consistent validator behavior in its Proof-of-Existence model and faced erosions in user engagement. The absence of a compelling content discovery mechanism rendered the ecosystem too static, failing to attract a wide portfolio of creators. Additionally, gas fee volatility on Ethereum exposed the limitations of user-paid timestamping.

By contrast, MediaChain (acquired by Spotify) took a hybrid approach. It stored metadata off-chain via IPFS, anchoring content references on-chain, and integrated image recognition and content fingerprinting. Yet its full tech stack never made it into production-scale use before Spotify absorbed the team for internal data tooling—underscoring the gap between vision and enterprise adoption timelines.

More recently, decentralized licensing platform Revelator is gaining traction by leveraging smart contracts for royalty splits and automated publishing workflows. However, it relies on permissioned smart contract templates, raising decentralization questions. Competing platforms like Dequency are experimenting with Layer 2 rollups to reduce minting and transaction costs for music NFTs, although cross-chain interoperability continues to be a pain point, especially with license metadata scattered across sidechains.

Identity correlation also remains a persistent challenge. Without robust decentralized identity (DID) standards across platforms, verifying the original creator of content still often defaults back to social reputation or off-chain metadata, reintroducing trust assumptions. This issue mirrors governance challenges elsewhere in Web3 ecosystems, as discussed in https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/the-future-of-decentralized-autonomous-organizations-governance-challenges-and-solutions-in-blockchain-ecosystems, where identity and accountability heavily influence protocol outcomes.

Despite these growing pains, the emergence of NFTs, composable smart contracts, and decentralized storage has laid a foundation for future IP innovations. Several existing platforms have stalled, pivoted, or been absorbed into Web2 entities, yet the architectural principles behind decentralized copyright enforcement continue to shape experimental deployments.

Part 4 – Future Evolution & Long-Term Implications

The Next Frontier: Evolving Copyright Management with Layered Blockchain Infrastructure

The trajectory of blockchain-based copyright management points toward deeper interoperability, modularity, and embedded programmability. Major friction points such as network congestion, transaction costs, and metadata limitations have already triggered research into purpose-built copyright registries operating on Layer-2 or even Layer-0 solutions.

We’re beginning to see early-stage experimentation with app-specific rollups tailored for IP management. These rollups optimize for high-throughput registration and micro-licensing activity. Unlike general-purpose L2s, copyright-focused rollups sacrifice composability to streamline schema consistency and reduce off-chain data dependencies. There’s also a growing interest in leveraging Layer-0 protocols that enable cross-chain issuance of copyright proofs—for example, minting attestations on one chain and licensing on another.

Integrating zero-knowledge (ZK) proofs could anonymize content ownership while still asserting rights on-chain. This has wide-ranging implications for pseudonymous creators and copyright holders in jurisdictions with weak enforcement. That said, chain-agnostic ZK circuits remain computationally expensive, and most frameworks require significant off-chain trust assumptions—making real-time verification at scale unreliable for now.

On-chain metadata remains another bottleneck. IP descriptions, licensing details, renewals, transfers—storing and accessing all of this natively is currently inefficient. Decentralized storage (e.g., IPFS, Filecoin) could offset on-chain bloat but introduces questions around permanence guarantees. For projects considering Filecoin integration, Unlocking Filecoin: The Future of Decentralized Storage offers relevant insights into emerging trade-offs between redundancy, cost, and latency.

One evolution under examination is dynamic NFTs representing copyrights. Unlike static collectibles, dynamic tokens can adjust licensing states in response to blockchain-native events (e.g., payment confirmations, DAO votes). Embedding logic into NFTs for usage rights (streaming, commercial use, remixing) could automate enforcement without intermediaries—though doing so introduces increased attack surfaces and audit complexity.

Interfacing with decentralized identity (DID) frameworks could also standardize attribution. By binding content to verified DID signatures, the industry could move toward a portable, chain-agnostic authorship reputation layer. However, fragmentation across competing DID standards remains a hurdle. Full interoperability across Web3 identity layers is more a political challenge than a technical one.

Finally, as copyright tokens become composable within DAOs and DeFi primitives, new incentive structures are emerging. Fractional ownership of IP, collateralization of licensing revenues, and royalty-backed staking all carry momentum—but these constructs are riddled with governance frictions and legal opacity.

This raises critical questions about who steers decision-making, especially when copyright DAOs and tokenized rights intersect—a topic explored in depth in the upcoming section.

Part 5 – Governance & Decentralization Challenges

Governance and Decentralization Challenges in Blockchain-Based Copyright Systems

In decentralized copyright management systems, governance is not just a feature—it is the backbone of legitimacy, efficiency, and long-term sustainability. The tension between centralization for decision-making efficiency and decentralization for resilience and censorship-resistance creates a persistent challenge, particularly when it comes to resolving disputes, managing upgrades, and minimizing the risk of coordinated attacks.

Fully on-chain governance models aim to eliminate traditional gatekeepers by shifting control to token holders or protocol participants. While this may sound ideal in the context of creative rights, the practical implications are complex. For example, proof-of-stake-based systems risk plutocratic control, where large token holders dominate votes, effectively replicating the same centralized structures the technology is designed to replace. This poses a unique challenge to small rights-holders, such as independent creators, who could be sidelined by whales or coordinated voting blocks.

DAOs, often proposed as governance solutions, bring their own concerns. Misaligned incentives, low voter participation, and governance fatigue remain systemic problems. Controversial decisions in leading protocols sometimes pass with less than 10% of voting participation, raising questions around the legitimacy of changes with far-reaching consequences. These risks mirror legal loopholes in traditional copyright frameworks but are amplified by the immutability of smart contracts.

On the centralized end of the spectrum, hybrid governance models may use off-chain arbitration, legal fallback mechanisms, or centralized councils to mitigate governance gridlock. However, this opens the door to regulatory capture. A small group of actors could exploit off-chain processes or legal integrations for competitive advantage or malicious suppression of content. This contradicts the core promise of permissionless access and creator autonomy.

Governance attacks, such as proposal bribery and flash-loan vote buying, are no longer theoretical. DeFi governance has already witnessed dedicated actors distorting voting processes to pass self-serving measures—the same mechanisms can be repurposed in a decentralized intellectual property framework. For instance, imagine a coordinated governance proposal to retroactively delist an artist's work due to alleged IP infringement. Without robust checks and balances, majority vote could unfairly dictate an artist’s livelihood.

Lessons from emerging ecosystems such as ApeCoin DAO offer both inspiration and caution. While its governance structure represents a community-led experiment in decentralized coordination, it has also showcased the challenges of concentration and strategic manipulation. For a deeper exploration of these dynamics, see Decentralized Governance: The Power of ApeCoin DAO.

Part 6 will address the scalability and engineering trade-offs necessary to support widespread adoption of copyright systems on blockchain.

Part 6 – Scalability & Engineering Trade-Offs

Scaling Copyright Management on Blockchain: Engineering Trade-Offs and Architectural Constraints

Implementing blockchain-based copyright management at scale faces inherent ceilings imposed by the trilemma of decentralization, security, and scalability. On-chain enforcement of intellectual property rights pushes transaction and data throughput needs far beyond those of simple financial transfers. Embedding metadata-heavy copyright claims, proof-of-ownership hashes, licensing terms, and access controls introduces significant engineering complexity, especially across heterogeneous media formats.

Layer-1 blockchains like Ethereum offer a high degree of decentralization and robust security assumptions via Proof of Work (PoW) or Proof of Stake (PoS). However, they bottleneck on throughput—Ethereum, for instance, has a base capacity of ~15 TPS. While Layer-2 rollups like Optimistic and ZK Rollups mitigate this by batching transactions off-chain, they introduce latency or complexity that may detract from instant access use-cases critical to digital rights enforcement.

In contrast, performance-optimized chains like Solana and NEAR Protocol utilize bespoke consensus mechanisms (e.g., Proof of History, sharded Proof of Stake) and highly parallelized execution environments. This improves throughput into the thousands of TPS, but often at the cost of decentralization. Fewer validators, high resource requirements for nodes, and more centralized coordination elements limit trustlessness—raising questions about the long-term resilience of such systems to censorship or collusion.

Another axis of trade-off lies in smart contract execution environments. EVM-compatible chains prioritize composability and auditability but are often constrained by gas metering, slow confirmation times, and reduced storage efficiency. Alternatives like Move-based platforms (e.g., Aptos, Sui) offer more performant execution with reduced attack surface via resource-oriented programming, but lack the extensive tooling and audited contract libraries required for production-grade IP management systems.

Engineering decisions must also consider data storage strategies. While on-chain storage of copyright hashes is sustainable, embedding rich media content or full license documents becomes cost-prohibitive. Interoperability with decentralized storage networks like Filecoin or Arweave solves part of this, but introduces availability and integrity risks that require additional verification layers.

A hybrid approach may be inevitable—where Layer-1s log critical rights events immutably, Layer-2s manage workflows, and off-chain storage holds assets. Yet coordination across these layers drastically increases engineering overhead and points of failure.

For a parallel perspective on similar scalability dynamics in high-TPS chains, see https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/examining-solanas-major-blockchain-criticisms.

In the upcoming section, the discussion turns to the legal minefield—examining regulatory constraints and compliance risks in blockchain-based copyright enforcement.

Part 7 – Regulatory & Compliance Risks

Jurisdictional Battles and Legal Uncertainty: Blockchain Copyright Management Faces Compliance Risks

While blockchain introduces promising tools for decentralized copyright authentication and ownership tracking, it’s legally untested in many jurisdictions. The premise of immutable, time-stamped records may clash with established IP enforcement mechanisms, particularly in regions where traditional copyright registration and manual recordkeeping remain the backbone of legal validation.

Smart contracts can automate licensing terms, track derivative works, and manage royalties, but their legal status remains ambiguous. Courts in most jurisdictions don’t yet recognize smart contracts as enforceable unless supported by traditional legal agreements. As cross-border copyright solutions emerge—facilitated by NFTs, tokenized licensing, and decentralized registries—jurisdiction becomes a friction point. A creator using an NFT-based copyright registry on Polygon originating in the U.S. may encounter enforcement challenges if infringement occurs in a country without smart contract precedent or robust IP treaties. For those interested in Polygon's trust mechanics, this analysis of Examining the Flaws of Polygon: A Critical Review provides context.

Adding complexity is the prospect of centralized government interventions. Many regulators are skeptical of autonomous copyright ecosystems that bypass centralized registries and national IP offices. Immutable data on decentralized storage makes takedown requests and content relisting difficult or even impossible—a direct conflict with 'right to be forgotten' laws like GDPR in the EU or intermediary liability protections in the U.S. blockchain-based copyright platforms risk regulatory pushback if perceived to undermine these legal frameworks.

Compounding this, historical crypto regulation precedents around securities law may influence copyright tokenization interpretations. For instance, if a digital copyright license token appreciates in value or generates ongoing royalties, could it be classified as a financial security? If so, decentralized platforms minting such IP tokens could face SEC-like enforcement exposure. Past actions against tokenized assets that resemble profit-bearing contracts offer warning shots.

Compliance frameworks also differ significantly. While Singapore or Switzerland may exhibit permissiveness toward blockchain-first copyright applications, others like India or China tightly control digital IP distribution. Without a harmonized global regulatory stance, copyright-focused blockchains could face legal patchwork barriers—diminishing network effects and developer adoption.

In part 8, the focus will shift from regulatory hurdles to the monetary impact of blockchain-based copyright systems—disrupting pricing models, publishing revenue flows, and IP asset valuation structures.

Part 8 – Economic & Financial Implications

Blockchain and Copyright: Economic Shakeups and Financial Surprises

The tokenization of intellectual property via blockchain is set to initiate a reconfiguration of multiple financial ecosystems—some evolutionary, others potentially catastrophic. When IP rights get tied to NFTs or smart contracts, they become liquid, composable assets. This liquidity throttles open previously illiquid markets—song rights, visual assets, academic works—ushering them into the DeFi arena. New fractionalized ownership models blur the lines between creator and investor, trader and audience. That opens up new capital flows... but also volatile speculation.

Asset classes based on IP—digital art, music, literature—can now be traded globally in real time via decentralized platforms, much like synthetic assets or yield-bearing tokens. For developers and creators, this means new monetization levers, including perpetual royalties encoded on-chain, but for traders, it births another high-risk financial product. Whales may deploy IP tokens within liquidity pools, extract value via flash loans or bet on price movements in IP-backed derivatives. Such behavior could mirror what occurred with altcoins: short-term pumps fueled by hype divorced from actual utility.

Institutional investors stand at a critical junction. With platforms offering tokenization of large-scale IP libraries, funds that traditionally invest in film, music catalogs, or publishing rights may shift strategies, creating private IP-backed vaults and automated revenue routing using smart contracts. However, uncertainty around legal enforcement of on-chain ownership could render these initiatives exposed. Illiquidity events, oracle failures or a disconnect between legal title and token control may introduce systemic risk.

For DeFi protocols, IP tokens present undeniable integration potential, particularly around collateralization. Yet, if these tokens are not price-stable or legally arbitration-ready, lending platforms might face backlash from bad debt scenarios. Much like the early experimentation with real-world asset tokens (RWAs), there's a fragile dependency on off-chain data integrity—and courts.

On the flip side, this paradigm does empower DAOs and creator collectives to form their own licensing economies. Think of a music DAO issuing governance tokens tied to streaming revenue or synching deals. This feeds directly into the emerging thesis that blockchain-native organizations can act as collaborative publishers—themes well explored in Decentralized-Governance-The-Power-of-ApeCoin-DAO.

Increased speculation, ambiguous legal precedents, and technical debt within smart contract interoperability stacks may limit adoption. But the economic incentives are potent enough to attract capital from corners of finance previously indifferent to copyright mechanics. Social layer dynamics—perception of ownership, value of creativity, and redistribution of profit—will emerge as dominant narratives next.

Part 9 – Social & Philosophical Implications

Tokenized IP Markets: How Blockchain Disrupts Value Chains in Copyright

Tokenized intellectual property (IP) introduces fractional ownership models that fundamentally alter economic dynamics across creative industries. As smart contracts automate licensing, royalties, and revenue splits in real-time, middlemen like publishers, rights management agencies, and legal arbiters become redundant. This disintermediation compresses the traditional IP value chain—shifting financial control upstream to creators and downstream to microinvestors. Notably, it introduces speculation where there once was only static ownership.

For institutional investors, tokenized copyright assets resemble yield-bearing instruments. Smart contracts tied to NFT-based IP rights can be programmed to stream creator revenue or distribute royalties, mimicking bond-like qualities. But this isn’t risk-free. IP assets—unlike protocols—are often unverifiable, subjective, and jurisdictionally complex. The black swan lies in invalid ownership claims that render rights tokens worthless after litigation, creating a market prone to systemic shocks from single-point failures.

Developers building decentralized platforms for IP monetization are stepping into a fragile legal grey zone. While blockchain-native licensing might offer efficiency and transparency, it often bypasses regulatory compliance like DRM standards or international copyright treaties (e.g., Berne Convention). These contradictions could invite expensive lawsuits or shut down access to off-chain markets. Further, protocols managing copyrighted works are exposed to takedown risks under DMCA regulations—an aspect routinely overlooked in token design.

Speculators and traders are creating micro-markets for song rights, art royalties, and licensed collectibles. Secondary markets allow units of revenue-generating IP to trade like any ERC-20 token—introducing liquidity, pricing mechanics, and yield farming to what was once illiquid, long-term capital. However, these markets attract volatility, pump-and-dump schemes, and fraudulent claims. The speculative frenzy around tokenized media mirrors early IPO hype—without the due diligence.

A clear parallel emerges with https://bestdapps.com/blogs/news/unlocking-apecoin-beyond-the-bored-apes, where ApeCoin’s ecosystem transformed passive holders into engaged stewards of IP value creation through DAO mechanisms. But tokenizing IP introduces divergence: speculative value doesn't always reflect creative value, raising existential questions about culture as financial product.

Some DAO treasuries may explore copyright tokens as long-tail yield assets or governance-guided creative portfolios. Yet such models require high-fidelity metadata, legal clarity, and enforceable claims—none of which are guaranteed. Without strict standards, the most common outcome may be hyper-fragmented IP economies littered with orphaned tokens and unenforceable rights.

As blockchain rewires the economics of ownership and monetization, its financial implications raise deep questions about value, trust, and speculation. The ripple effects spill far beyond the balance sheets—setting up the discussion for part nine, where the social and philosophical impact of tokenizing intellectual property will be explored.

Part 10 – Final Conclusions & Future Outlook

Blockchain and Copyright: Where the Disruption Stands — and Doesn't

After mapping the intersection of blockchain with copyright management across smart contracts, NFTs, composable digital rights, decentralized registries and more, one fact is clear: blockchain’s capacity to reshape intellectual property is significant — but not without friction.

At its most effective, blockchain-based copyright tracking eliminates ambiguities in provenance, eliminates intermediaries, enables real-time royalty streams, and supports programmable ownership. The best-case scenario has already shown early traction in niche creator ecosystems and composable content platforms. Smart contracts can enforce terms atomically, while provenance is made transparent and immutable. Ownership fractionalization via NFTs and DAOs enables artist-first value distribution, lowering dependence on bloated legacy institutions.

But most implementations still exist in fragmented silos that fail under real-world conditions — particularly interoperability, legal enforcement, and user abstraction. At scale, governance becomes the choke point. Who updates smart contracts after a DMCA dispute? What standards should wallets follow for universal rights management? Efforts to unify metadata schemas across chains have produced little traction. And in jurisdictions with weak or incompatible copyright legislation, the immutability of blockchain data often becomes a legal liability, not an asset.

Worse, a proliferation of tokenized rights without adequate UX, legal validity, or enforcement pathways can generate more confusion than clarity. The most plausible regulatory friction won’t target creators — it’ll be the platforms or protocols enabling royalty routing or licensing bypass structures at mass scale. And unlike DeFi, where pseudonymity can delay enforcement, content platforms are highly visible and legally exposed. The worst-case outcome? An ecosystem riddled with unlicensed use, no clear fallback legal process, and a copyright “gray zone” too risky for legitimate participants.

To avoid that, several shifts are necessary: a standardized IP metadata protocol adopted across major smart contract platforms, encrypted content gating mechanisms tied to rights ownership, and DAO-governed community adjudication models able to respond dynamically to disputes. Successful blueprints may look more like an internet-native PRO (performance rights organization) than an NFT drop site.

Whether copyright protection becomes blockchain’s Trojan horse into mainstream adoption or dies as a promising niche case will hinge on who keeps building interoperable, legally aware tools. As seen in projects like Decentralized Governance: The Power of ApeCoin DAO, consistent governance and community-led enforcement systems matter as much as the underlying code or tokenomics.

In the end, one question looms: will blockchain-recorded intellectual property define a new paradigm of creator freedom — or collapse under its own complexity, joining earlier tech promises that never scaled?

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